Apparatus for energy extraction-I

ABSTRACT

In some embodiments, the illustrative method defines an engine cycle comprising several state changes that allow for a net gain of energy from an underlying source force field. The potential for a net energy gain via the method results from the discovery that a Casimir force system can be rendered non-conservative. This is done by appropriately altering one or more of a variety of physical factors that affect the Casimir force, or by altering any of a variety of environmental factors that affect such physical factors. In various embodiments, the extracted energy is stored, used to power energy-consuming devices or used to actuate a micromechanical device. In one embodiment, the method is implemented using an energy extraction apparatus that comprises two spaced Casimir force-generating boundaries that are operatively coupled to an energy transformation system. The energy transformation system includes a first device that is operable to alter at least one physical factor of the system. The energy transformation system also includes a second device that is operable to change the distance between the two Casimir force-generating boundaries, and further operable to maintain the distance between the boundaries while the first device alters the physical factor.

STATEMENT OF RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a division of and claims priority of U.S. patentapplication No. 09/578,638 filed May 25, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No.6,477,028 which, in turn claims priority of U.S. patent application No.60/135,868 filed May 25, 1999.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the extraction of energy froma source force field, such as the quantum electromagnetic field.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Three hundred years ago, it was believed that if all matter were removedfrom a region of space, a completely empty volume—a vacuum—results. Onehundred years ago, it was known that even if all matter were removedfrom a region of space, that region is not truly empty because it stillwould contain thermal radiation. At that time, however, it wasincorrectly believed that a vacuum could still be created by removingthe thermal radiation, such as by cooling the region of space toabsolute zero.

More recently, theory has predicted and experimentation has shown that anon-thermal radiation is present everywhere in the universe—even inregions that are otherwise devoid of matter and thermal radiation. Thisnon-thermal radiation is believed to result from random fluctuationsoccurring at the quantum level that result in a continual creation anddestruction of virtual particles. This radiation is often referred to asa “zero point field,” or by the acronym “ZPF,” and the energy that isassociated with the field is referred to as “zero point energy,” “vacuumenergy,” or simply by the acronym “ZPE.”

In 1948, Hendrik B. J. Casimir theorized that two perfectly conducting,neutral planes that are situated in parallel relation to one anothergive rise to a mutually attractive force. This force, since referred toas “the Casimir force,” results from the effect that the two planes haveon the vacuum energy of a source field, such as an electromagneticfield, between the planes.

The Casimir force is believed to arise solely from the aforedescribedquantum-level activity. The presence of Casimir's two planes, or, inpractical applications, two plates, restricts the allowed modes ofoscillation of the random fluctuations in the quantum electromagneticfield. In other words, the presence of the plates alters the boundaryconditions of the electromagnetic field from free-field conditions.Consequently, the vacuum electromagnetic energy density in the spacebetween the plates is less than the energy density outside of this space(i.e., the number of virtual particles per unit volume in the spacebetween the plates is less than the number of virtual particles per unitvolume outside of this space). This difference or gradient in energydensity gives rise to a force (i.e., the Casimir force) that pushes theplates together.

While the Casimir force is “real” in the sense that is observable, thequantum electrodynamic (“QED”) theory described above is not the onlytheory that adequately accounts for its existence. In particular,stochastic electrodynamics (“SED”), which provides a differentinterpretation, yields the same predictions.

The magnitude of the Casimir force, F_(C), per unit area is given by theexpression:F _(C)(s)=(π²/240)·(h*c/s ⁴)  [1]where: · means “multiply;”

-   -   h*=h/(2π)    -   h is Planck's constant;    -   c is the speed of light in a vacuum;    -   s is the separation between the two conducting surfaces.

It is clear from expression [1] that as s approaches 0, the Casimirforce F_(C)(s) becomes large. In fact, the Casimir force per unit areabetween two plates separated by a distance s of about 0.1 microns isequivalent to the electrostatic force per unit area between the same twoplates in the presence of a potential difference of about 100millivolts.

ZPE is expected to exhibit infinite energy density and to be universallypresent, and might therefore be a limitless source of energy. This, notsurprisingly, has tantalized researchers and spawned several effortsdedicated to ZPE research and commercialization. Such effortsnotwithstanding, investigators have not as yet developed devices andmethods that are suitable for commercially exploiting ZPE.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Some embodiments of a method in accordance with the present inventiondefine an engine cycle comprising several state changes that enable anet gain or recovery of energy that is accessed via Casimirforce-generating boundaries (e.g., plates, etc.).

One illustrative embodiment of a method for energy conversion/recoveryin accordance with the present teachings comprises:

-   -   altering a physical factor that affects the Casimir force        between two spaced Casimir force-generating boundaries;    -   changing the distance by which the two spaced Casimir        force-generating boundaries are separated;    -   re-altering the physical factor to return it to its former        value; and    -   returning the separation distance between the boundaries to its        original value.

In one embodiment of the illustrative method, the altered physicalfactor is the concentration of free charge carriers in the Casimirforce-generating boundaries. One way to alter the concentration of freecharge carriers is to illuminate at least one of the Casimirforce-generating boundaries (e.g., plates) with photons. Another is toraise the temperature of such boundaries and yet another is to injectcharge into at least one of the Casimir force-generating boundaries.

In some embodiments, the illustrative method includes a step of storingthe energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries after it issuitably transformed. In other embodiments, the method includes a stepof delivering energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries toother electrical consumers after it is suitably transformed. In stillfurther embodiments, the method includes a step of actuating amicromechanical device with the energy accessed via the present method.

An illustrative apparatus for carrying out the inventive methodcomprises, in one embodiment, a system for accessing zero-point energy(e.g., two Casimir force-generating boundaries) that is operativelycoupled to an energy transformation system. In some embodiments, theenergy transformation system includes a first device that is operable toalter at least one physical factor of the system, and a second devicethat is operable to change a distance between the Casimirforce-generating boundaries. The first and second devices advantageouslyoperate independently of each other such that, at the same time, thephysical factor can be affected and spacing between the boundaries canbe controlled.

The structure of the energy transformation system varies as a functionof the nature of the energy transformation (e.g., to electrical energyfor storage, to electrical energy for direct use, to mechanical/kineticenergy for actuation, etc.).

Underlying the illustrative engine cycle, methods and apparatusesdescribed herein is a discovery that a Casimir force system can berendered non-conservative by appropriately altering one or more physicalfactors that affect the Casimir force, or by altering one or moreenvironmental factors that affect such physical factors.

More particularly, it has been discovered that by altering a physicalfactor that affects the Casimir force, an apparatus can be created inwhich more energy is expended by the Casimir force in drawing theCasimir force-generating boundaries together than it takes to pull themapart. As a consequence, when such boundaries are pulled apart, a netenergy transfer results. The cycle can be repeated as long as theapparatus lasts.

Unlike the gravitational force, the value of which does not depend onthe properties of a mass being acted upon, the Casimir force dependsupon a variety of physical factors that can be changed if a specificenergy price is paid. When such a penalty is smaller, in absolute terms,than the total work done by the Casimir force in a cycle, a net amountof energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries is availablefor recovery. When the penalty is larger, in absolute terms, than thetotal work done by the Casimir force in a cycle, then the presentmethods and apparatuses function simply to transform energy (i.e., as atransducer), but yield no net gain of energy.

Some embodiments of the present invention appear to contradict typicalinterpretations of the principle of conservation of energy but, in fact,do not. Energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries is madeavailable because of well-known energy conservation arguments, not inspite of them.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a well-known Casimir force-generating system.

FIG. 2 depicts an illustrative engine cycle in accordance with thepresent teachings.

FIG. 3 depicts a method for energy extraction in accordance with theillustrated embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 4 depicts the dependence of the Casimir force on plate separationas a function of dopant level.

FIG. 5 depicts, figuratively, an illustrative embodiment of energyextraction apparatus in accordance with the present teachings.

FIG. 6 depicts an embodiment of the illustrative energy extractionapparatus depicted in FIG. 5. The apparatus is depicted at the end of afirst state change in accordance with the illustrative cycle of FIG. 2and at the end of a first step in accordance with the illustrativemethod of FIG. 3.

FIG. 7 depicts the energy extraction apparatus shown in FIG. 6, butdepicts the apparatus at the end of a second state change in accordancewith the illustrative cycle of FIG. 2 and at the end of a second step inaccordance with the illustrative method of FIG. 3.

FIG. 8 depicts the energy extraction apparatus shown in FIG. 6, butdepicts the apparatus at the end of a third state change in accordancewith the illustrative cycle of FIG. 2 and at the end of a third step inaccordance with the illustrative method of FIG. 3.

FIG. 9 depicts the energy extraction apparatus shown in FIG. 6, butdepicts the apparatus at the end of a fourth state change in accordancewith the illustrative cycle of FIG. 2 and at the end of a fourth step inaccordance with the illustrative method of FIG. 3.

FIG. 10 depicts a further illustrative embodiment of a method for energyextraction in accordance with the present teachings.

FIGS. 11 a-11 e depict the cycling of two control variables in anillustrative method in accordance with the present teachings.

FIG. 12 depicts an arrangement whereby energy that is recovered is usedto drive a device that requires electricity to operate.

FIG. 13 depicts an arrangement whereby recovered energy is used as anactuating force.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As stated in the Background section, the Casimir force arises (in atleast one interpretation) from the imposition of boundary conditions ona source force field, such as the quantum electromagnetic field, the“strong” force field, the gravitational force field, and the “weak”force field. Although the illustrative methods and apparatuses describedherein are directed to systems in which the Casimir force arises frominteractions with the quantum electromagnetic field, the presentinvention is also applicable to systems in which the Casimir forcearises from interactions with the “strong” force field, thegravitational force field, and the “weak” force field.

It will be understood that the illustrative embodiments of the presentinvention do not, literally, “change” or “transform” zero point energyto another form of energy. In particular, in accordance with someembodiments of an illustrative apparatus in accordance with the presentinvention, Casimir force-generating boundaries interact or cooperatewith an energy transformation system. Such interactions include, forexample, moving a linkage that engages another device or affecting anelectrostatic field. To the extent such interactions occur, zero-pointenergy is thus transformed or changed to another form of energy—be itelectrical, kinetic, etc.

As used in this Specification, the phrase “Casimir force-generatingboundaries” means any object (mass) or force field that is capable ofrestricting the allowed modes of oscillation of random quantum-levelfluctuations of a source force field or is otherwise capable of alteringthe boundary conditions of a source force field from free-fieldconditions. Such objects include, without limitation, plates, spheres,particles (even atomic and subatomic particles) and the like. Regardingforce fields, any secondary force field (i.e., secondary with respect toa source force field) including, without limitation, an electromagneticfield, will interact with the source force field therefore altering theboundary conditions of the source force field from free-fieldconditions.

As used in this Specification, the phrase “energy accessed via Casimirforce-generating boundaries” means energy (e.g., zero point energy)arising from a source force field (e.g., quantum electromagnetic field,etc.) that is manipulated via the Casimir force.

As used in this Specification, the phrases “net gain,” “net exchange,”and the term “recovery,” when used in conjunction with the term“energy,” mean that more energy is withdrawn from a system than is addedthereto. The phrases “convert” or “conversion,” when used in conjunctionwith the term “energy,” mean that while energy accessed via Casimirforce-generating boundaries is harnessed for use, no net gain of energyis realized via the present methods or apparatuses. As used in theSpecification, the term “extraction,” when used in conjunction with theterm “energy,” is meant to refer generally to both energy conversion andenergy recovery, or to refer to either energy conversion and energyrecovery.

The illustrative embodiments described herein are improvements on asimple well-known Casimir force-generating system, which is depicted inFIG. 1. In particular, FIG. 1 depicts two Casimir force-generatingboundaries P₁ and P₂. Casimir force-generating boundaries P₁ and P₂ areseparated by distance s. Casimir force-generating boundary P₁ is movabletowards (and away from) Casimir force-generating boundary P₂.

As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, when performingCasimir force calculations, Casimir force-generating boundaries P₁ andP₂ are considered to be slabs (typically dielectric) having“semi-infinite” thickness. Thus, for such calculations, Casimirforce-generating boundary P₁ (shown as a thin plate-like structure inFIG. 1) is assumed to extend infinitely to the left (in FIG. 1),beginning at the surface of P₁ that is proximal to boundary P₂.Similarly, Casimir force-generating boundary P₂ extends infinitely tothe right, beginning at the surface of P₂ that is proximal to boundaryP₁.

Semi-infinite boundary P₁ has dielectric properties ε₁(ω), andsemi-infinite boundary P₂ has dielectric properties ε₂(ω). The regionbetween such boundaries is assumed to have dielectric properties ε₃(ω).When performing quantitative estimates, it is typically assumed thatε₁(ω)=ε₂(ω), and ε₃(ω)=1. Real plates, of course, have a non-infinitethickness. In many cases, the non-infinite thickness of real plates doesnot alter the quantitative results predicated on the assumption ofsemi-infinite boundaries.

It will be recognized that the Casimir force is a function of thespecific geometry of the Casimir force-generating system. For example,in a system comprising two parallel boundaries as in FIG. 1, the Casimirforce is attractive, but in a system comprising two halves of thin metalspherical shells the Casimir force is repulsive. In addition, changingthe physical orientation of spaced boundaries P₁ and P₂ from “parallel”to “not parallel” will affect the Casimir force. And, of course, varyingthe angle defined between two non-parallel boundaries will vary theCasimir force. Also, bending a boundary (see, e.g., FIG. 6) will affectthe Casimir force. The ability to extract energy, and the extent of suchextraction in accordance with the present teachings, can, therefore,vary as a function of the specific arrangement used. It will beunderstood by those skilled in the art that embodiments of the presentinvention can use Casimir force-generating boundaries that are arrangedin many specific arrangements other than in spaced, parallel relation asdepicted in FIG. 1.

Referring again to FIG. 1, the Casimir force F_(C) between P₁ and P₂ isdepicted as an attractive force that is a function of:

-   -   1. the distance s between the surfaces;    -   2. every physical factor Y_(l) that determines the dielectric        and other properties (e.g., surface roughness, etc.) of the        materials that comprise the system (e.g., such as the material        that comprises boundaries P₁ and P₂)    -   3. every environmental factor X_(j) that affects each physical        factor Y_(l).

Regarding item 2, the concentration of free carriers in P₁ and P₂ can,for example, affect the magnitude of the Casimir force F_(C) (otherparameters affecting the Casimir force are described later in thisSpecification).

With regard to item 3, environmental factors X_(j) that affect physicalfactors Y_(l), include, without limitation, the absolute temperature andthe radiation density. And, the dependence of physical factors Y_(l) isin addition to any intrinsic dependence of Casimir force F_(C) ontemperature. Thus, for any given arrangement of P₁ and P₂, the Casimirforce F_(C) is a function of the kind:F _(C) =F _(C)(s; Y ₁(X ₁ , X ₂, . . . ); Y ₂(X ₁ , X ₂, . . . ); . . .)  [2]

FIG. 2 depicts a plot of illustrative “engine” cycle 200 for use in theextraction of energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries inaccordance with the present teachings. A method 300 based on enginecycle 200 is depicted in FIG. 3.

In FIG. 2, the abscissa (i.e., the x-axis) represents distance s betweentwo Casimir force-generating boundaries P₁ and P₂ (see, FIG. 1), and theordinate (i.e., the y-axis) represents the absolute value of the Casimirforce F_(C).

Illustrative engine cycle 200 is described, for pedagogical purposes,with reference to points A, B, C and D. It will be understood that suchpoints are arbitrary and are used for purposes of illustration, notlimitation. Moreover, it will be recognized that illustrative enginecycle 200 proceeds in either of two directions; that is, cycle 200 isreversible.

Illustrative engine cycle 200 comprises state changes 202, 204, 206 and208 that affect the value of the Casimir force F_(C). The description ofcycle 200 begins at point A, wherein the Casimir force F_(C) has a valueF_(C) ^(A) that is a function of distance s, and all physical factorsY_(l)(X_(j)):F _(C) ^(A) =F _(C)(s _(A) ; Y _(1A)(X _(1A) , X _(2A), . . . ); Y_(2A)(X _(1A) , X _(2A), . . . ); . . . )  [3]

Beginning at point A, a state change or transformation 204 is effectedthat ends at point B. To implement state change 204 (i.e., A→B), thedistance s between the Casimir force-generating boundaries is changed,but all other physical and environmental factors Y_(l)(X_(j)) thataffect the Casimir force are assumed to be substantially constant andequal to their value at point A. The change in distance s results, ofcourse, in a change in the value of the Casimir force F_(C) to:F _(C) ^(B) =F _(C)(s _(B) ; Y _(1A)(X _(1A) , X _(2A), . . . ); Y_(2A)(X _(1A) , X _(2A), . . . ); . . . )  [4]In state change 204 of illustrative cycle 200, the Casimir force F_(C)increases since distance s is decreased, in accordance with expression[1].

At point B, another state change 206 occurs that ends at point C. Asdepicted in FIG. 2, during state change 206 (i.e., B→C), the Casimirforce-generating boundaries (e.g., P₁ and P₂) are held substantiallyconstant such that there is no change in distance s. Rather, a change iseffected to physical factors Y_(l)(X_(j)). Since, by definition, suchphysical factors affect the Casimir force, the change in physicalfactors Y_(l)(X_(j)) changes the value of Casimir force F_(C) to:F _(C) ^(C) =F _(C)(s _(B) ; Y _(1C)(X _(1C) , X _(2C), . . . ); Y_(2C)(X _(1C) , X _(2C), . . . ); . . . )  [5]In expression [5], distance s is referenced as “s_(B)” to emphasize thatthere is no change in this variable (i.e., s_(C)=s_(B)) during statechange 206.

From point C, state change 208 occurs that ends at point D. In statechange 208 (i.e., C→D), distance s is advantageously returned to itsinitial value (i.e., s_(D)=s_(D)), while all other parameters are heldsubstantially constant. The value of Casimir force F_(C) at point D dueto state change 208 is:F _(C) ^(D) =F _(C)(s _(A) ; Y _(1C)(X _(1C) , X _(2C), . . . ); Y_(2C)(X _(1C) , X _(2C), . . . ); . . . )  [6]

Finally, in state change 202 that ends at point A (i.e., D→A), physicalfactors Y_(l)(X_(j)) are advantageously restored to their initial valuesso that the value of Casimir force F_(C) is given by:F _(C) ^(A) =F _(C)(s _(A) ; Y _(1A)(X _(1A) , X _(2A), . . . ); Y_(2A)(X _(1A) , X _(2A), . . . ); . . . )  [7]

The total energy, W_(tot), available from engine cycle 200 is given by:W _(tot)≡(W _(DA) −W _(BC))−W _(Cas)  [8]where: W_(BC) represents an amount of energy transferred from the system(W_(BC)>0) to create state change 206;

-   -   W_(DA) represents an amount of energy transferred to the system        (W_(DA)<0) to create state change 202; and    -   W_(Cas) is the total mechanical work done by Casimir force F_(C)        over its closed path (i.e., the area enclosed by the curves that        define cycle 200).

The quantity W_(DA), or state change 202, represents the addition ofenergy to engine cycle 200. The quantity W_(BC), or state change 206,represents the removal of energy from engine cycle 200. The removal oraddition of such energy can be effected in numerous ways, a few of whichare described later in this Specification.

The work done by the Casimir force, W_(Cas), is given by:W _(CΩ) ≡φF _(C)(s; Y _(l)(X _(j)))ds  [9]

Conventional energy conversion systems are conservative. As such, thetotal energy, W_(tot), available from such systems is zero. In otherwords, the energy “out” of such systems is never greater than the energythat is added to such systems. In view of inefficiencies (e.g.,friction, etc.) in practical systems, the useful energy out of a systemis typically far less than the energy added to the system.

Consider, for example, a hydroelectric plant. Water cannot betransported back up to the top of a water falls without expending anamount of energy that is exactly equal to the kinetic energy obtainedfrom that same water as it falls through turbines at the bottom of thewater falls. This is well understood from the conservative properties ofthe gravitational force. Indeed, a substantial amount of experimentationhas consistently shown that the gravitational constant does not dependon the chemical properties of the materials involved or on theirtemperature.

In contrast to the gravitational constant, every present theory of theCasimir force between two surfaces predicts a dependence on those veryphysical or environmental factors (see Expression [2], above). Thetendency to liken the exchange of energy accessed via Casimirforce-generating boundaries to that of hydroelectric energy productionand other conventional forms of energy production is thereforeinappropriate and incorrect.

The present inventor has discovered that by appropriately altering anyof the physical factors Y_(l)(X_(j)), a Casimir force system can be madenon-conservative such that a net exchange of energy accessed via Casimirforce-generating boundaries is possible, at least theoretically, such asvia engine cycle 200. Unfortunately, the withdrawal and input of energyin conjunction with cycle 200 is not readily correlated to the variousstate changes the make up the cycle. The energy balance is determined bynetting the various contributions as indicated in expression [8].

Considering the cycle in its entirety, however, the possibility forenergy recovery is manifest. Engine cycle 200 creates a situation inwhich more work is required to draw the plates together (work done bythe Casimir force) than to pull them apart (energy added to the system).And, when (W_(DA)−W_(BC))−W_(Cas)<0, there is a net recovery ofenergy—energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries.

The difference in work described above is observable in FIG. 2. Inparticular, the change in the Casimir force is greater for the statechange from point A to point B (work done by the Casimir force), whereinthe distance between the plates is decreased, than for the state changefrom point C to point D, wherein the distance between the plates isincreased (energy is supplied to pull the plates apart). Again, whatmakes this possible is a change in the value of physical factorsY_(l)(X_(j)).

Specifically, at points A and B, the physical factors are defined by afirst set of values (see expressions [3] and [4]), while at points C andD, the physical factors are defined by a second set of values (seeexpressions [5] and [6]). Since the Casimir force is a function ofphysical factors Y_(l)(X_(j)), the change in value of the physicalfactors results in a difference in the Casimir force for a givendistance between the Casimir force-generating boundaries (e.g., comparepoint D to point A). And, more importantly in the context of the presentinvention, the rate of change of the Casimir force is different.

Recovery of energy from a source energy field in accordance withillustrative engine cycle 200 is readily distinguishable from, forexample, net gain of energy from an endless recycle of water from thebottom to the top of a water falls in Escher-like fashion. Again, unlikethe gravitational force, the Casimir force depends upon a variety ofphysical factors that can be changed if a specific energy price is paid.When such a penalty is smaller, in absolute terms, than the total workdone by the Casimir force in cycle 200, a net amount of energy accessedvia Casimir force-generating boundaries is available for recovery.

This discovery appears to contradict typical interpretations of theprinciple of conservation of energy. In fact, it does not; energyaccessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries is made availablebecause of well-known energy conservation arguments, and not in spite ofthem. In fact, one or more well-established physical principles wouldhave to be abandoned to reach the conclusion that, in the illustrativeengine cycle 200 described herein, the Casimir force is conservative. Inthis context, it should be noted that the interpretative details willdiffer as between a QED-based description of the Casimir force and aSED-based description of the Casimir force.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, if a net gain of energy accessed viaCasimir force-generating boundaries is not realized in practice due totechnological or other unanticipated limitations, then engine cycle 200provides energy conversion—that is, the cycle simply provides atransformation or a transducer function. For further theoreticaltreatment of the illustrative engine cycle described herein, includingevaluation of the net energy gain, see, Pinto, F., “On the Engine Cycleof an Optically Controlled Vacuum Energy Transducer,” Phys. Rev. B, vol.60, issue 2, Dec. 1, 1999, p. 14740+, incorporated herein by reference.

FIG. 3 depicts a flow diagram of an illustrative method 300 forextraction of energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries,in accordance with an illustrated embodiment of the present invention.Method 300 is based on illustrative engine cycle 200. The steps oroperations of illustrative method 300 are ordered in a convenient mannerfor description. In particular, such steps are ordered to facilitatereference to the foregoing description of engine cycle 200. It will beappreciated from the description of engine cycle 200 that the order inwhich the various operations or steps of illustrative method 300 arecarried out is arbitrary.

Like engine cycle 200 upon which it is based, method 300 will bedescribed, as appropriate, in the context of a system having two Casimirforce-generating boundaries, such as two plates, one fixed and the othermovable, that are spaced from and in parallel relation to one another.For clarity of presentation, the basic operations of illustrative method300 are described first. That description is followed by a descriptionof the energy flow into and out of a system carrying out method 300.

Referring to FIG. 3, in a first operation 302 of method 300, at leastone physical factor Y_(l) that affects the value of the Casimir force isaltered. Starting, for convenience, at point D in engine cycle 200,operation 302 corresponds to state change or transformation 202 (i.e.,D→A state change). As described in further detail later in thisSpecification in conjunction with FIGS. 6-8, in some embodiments,operation 302 requires the addition of energy to the system.

Examples of physical factors that are altered in various embodimentsinclude, without limitation, the concentration of free charge carriersand the location and strength of any absorption bands in the materialcomprising the Casimir force-generating boundaries. In otherembodiments, altered physical factors include the material properties ofthe Casimir force-generating boundaries. Such material propertiesinclude, without limitation, dielectric properties and surfaceroughness.

An additional alterable physical factor Y_(l) includes the specificgeometry of the Casimir force generating system. For example, changingthe physical orientation of spaced boundaries P₁ and P₂ from “parallel”to “not parallel” will affect the Casimir force. And, of course, varyingthe angle defined between two non-parallel boundaries will vary theCasimir force. Also, bending a boundary (see, e.g., FIG. 6) will affectthe Casimir force.

The material(s) comprising the Casimir force-generating boundaries aresuitably selected as a function of the physical factor(s) Y_(l) chosenfor alteration. For example, in an embodiment wherein the alteredphysical factor is the concentration of free charge carriers, theboundaries are advantageously semiconductors or compound semiconductors.Illustrative semiconductors (for embodiments wherein the alteredphysical factor is the concentration of free charge carriers) include,without limitation, silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and compoundsemiconductors such as, without limitation, gallium arsenide (GaAs),indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) and indium antimonide (InSb).

Moreover, in some embodiments, the boundaries comprise dopedsemiconductors and doped compound semiconductors, including, withoutlimitation, phosphorus-doped silicon and indium antimonide that includesnaturally occurring impurities. In some embodiments, dopants areselected based on their relative ease of ionization.

By way of illustration, FIG. 4 depicts plots showing the change inCasimir force due to a variation in free charge carriers, as effectedvia various dopant concentrations. Plots 410, 412, 414 and 416 show theCasimir force as a function of plate spacing for plates formed fromcrystalline silicon that is doped with donor phosphorus atconcentrations of: 0.011×10¹⁹ cm⁻³, 0.52×10¹⁹ cm⁻³, 10×10¹⁹ cm⁻³ and3.8×10²¹ cm⁻³, respectively. High dopant concentrations generate morefree charge carriers resulting in an increase in the Casimir force. Moreenergy is, however, typically required to generate such larger numbersof free charge carriers such that there may be no benefit to usingultra-heavily doped materials.

In some embodiments, operation 302 is implemented by directly alteringphysical factor Y_(l). Continuing with the previous example wherein thealtered physical factor is the concentration of free charge carriers,that concentration is directly altered, in one embodiment, byilluminating Casimir force-generating boundaries P₁ and P₂. In anotherembodiment, the concentration of free charge carriers is directlyaltered by injecting charge to boundaries P₁ and P₂. Various other waysknown to those skilled in the art to directly affect the free carrierconcentration may suitably be used to implement operation 302.

In other embodiments, operation 302 is implemented by indirectlyaltering physical factor Y_(l), such as by altering environmental factorX_(j) that affects the physical factor Y_(l). One such readily alteredenvironmental factor that is suitable for indirectly altering physicalfactor Y_(l) is temperature. In the specific example of theconcentration of free charge carriers as the altered physical factorY_(l), changing the temperature of Casimir force-generating boundariesP₁ and P₂ causes thermal ionization of donor dopants and a consequentincrease in carrier concentration.

The phrase “altering a physical factor,” as used in this Specification,is meant to encompass both direct alteration of physical factor Y_(l),as well as indirect alteration of physical factor Y_(l), such as byaltering environmental factor X_(j) that affects the physical factorY_(l), as described above. As used herein, the phrase “altering aphysical factor” explicitly excludes changing the distance betweenCasimir force-generating boundaries P₁ and P₂. Moreover, unlessotherwise indicated, the phrase “physical factor” is meant to includephysical factors, and environmental factors that affect the physicalfactors.

Continuing with the description of illustrative method 300, distance sbetween the two Casimir force-generating boundaries P₁ and P₂ is changedin operation 304. With reference to cycle 200, operation 304 correspondsto state change 204 (i.e., A→B). The manner in which operation 304 isaccomplished depends, of course, on the apparatus chosen forimplementing method 300. An embodiment of an apparatus suitable forimplementing method 300 is described later in this Specification inconjunction with FIGS. 5-11.

In operation 306, the physical factor(s) Y_(l) that were altered inoperation 302 are again altered. In one embodiment, the altered physicalfactors(s) are advantageously returned to their original value(s) (e.g.,the value(s) at point D). Such an embodiment corresponds to state change306 (i.e., B→C) depicted in cycle 200 (FIG. 2).

In other embodiments, the altered physical factor(s) are altered in anappropriate “direction,” but not returned to their original value(s).For example, with reference to FIG. 2, in other embodiments, thephysical factor(s) are altered such that the Casimir force decreases asin the transformation B→C, but the alteration does not fully reduce theCasimir force to the value at point C such that the physical factor isnot returned to its original value. Rather, the state change results ina value of the Casimir force that is more or less than the value atpoint C. And, in a further embodiment, different physical factor(s) arealtered in operation 306 than were altered in operation 302.

In operation 308, distance s between the two boundaries P₁ and P₂ isagain changed. In particular, the movable surface is advantageouslyreturned to its original position. Thus, at the completion of operation308, distance s between the boundaries is advantageously the same as itwas before they were moved in operation 304. Operations 302-308 resultin the extraction of energy accessed via Casimir force-generatingboundaries. Operations 310A, 310B and 310C, described later in thisSpecification, pertain to the disposition of such extracted energy.

Illustrative method 300 is described further later in this Specificationwith reference to FIGS. 6-11, which depict an embodiment of illustrativeenergy extraction apparatus 500 (see FIG. 5) carrying out illustrativemethod 300.

Illustrative energy extraction apparatus 500 is operative, when carryingout illustrative method 300, to extract energy from a source forcefield, such as the quantum electromagnetic field. Illustrative energyextraction apparatus 500 comprises energy access system 502 and energytransformation system 532 that interact or cooperate with one another,as indicated by bi-directional indicator 506.

Energy access system 502 provides access to a source force field, suchas the quantum electromagnetic field (QED interpretation). Energytransformation system 532 transforms the accessed energy to a convenientform for exploitation (e.g., electrical energy, kinetic energy, etc.),among other functions. In some embodiments, energy access system 502 andenergy transformation system 532 include, collectively, all elementsthat are necessary for carrying out method 300.

Energy access system 502 advantageously comprises Casimirforce-generating boundaries 522 and 520. Energy from a source forcefield is accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries 522 and 520.Energy transformation system 532 advantageously includes a firstdevice/system 540 and a second device/system 534 that, independently ofone another, are operable to controllably affect the Casimir forceaccessed through energy access system 502.

In the illustrative embodiments, first device 540 is operable to alter aphysical factor of energy access system 502 that affects the Casimirforce. In embodiments in which energy access system 502 comprisesCasimir force-generating boundaries 522 and 520, device 540advantageously alters a physical factor of at least one of boundaries522 and 520. In some embodiments, device 540 is a laser.

In the illustrative embodiments, second device 534 is operable tocontrollably change the distance between two Casimir force-generatingboundaries. In some embodiments, device 534 is a controlled powersupply.

The particular physical configuration of energy transformation system532 varies with the nature of the energy transformation (e.g.,transformation to electrical energy, transformation to kinetic energy,etc.). FIGS. 6-9 illustrate one specific embodiment of energy extractionapparatus 500, wherein energy transformation system 532 is physicallyconfigured to transform energy accessed via Casimir force-generatingboundaries to electrical energy.

In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6, energy extraction apparatus 500comprises four plates 518, 520, 522, 524, interrelated as shown. In theembodiment depicted in FIG. 6, energy access system 502 comprises plates522 and 520. In particular, plates 522 and 520 function as the Casimirforce-generating boundaries.

Plates 520 and 518 are physically separated and electrically insulatedvia standoffs 526, plates 522 and 520 are physically separated andelectrically insulated via standoffs 528, and plates 524 and 522 arephysically separated and electrically insulated via standoffs 530. Plate522 is movable upwardly and downwardly, while plates 518, 520 and plate524 are non-moving. Standoffs 526, 528 and 530 comprise an electricallyinsulating material, such as, without limitation, silicon oxide andsilicon nitride.

Energy extraction device 500 further includes energy transformationsystem 532. In the illustrated embodiment, energy transformation system532 is physically configured to carry out operation 310A of method 300,wherein energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries istransformed to electrical energy and stored.

Energy transformation system 532 includes plates 518 and 524, controlledbi-directional power supply 534 that is electrically connected to eachplate 518, 520, 522 and 524, resistor 536 that represents the internalresistance of bi-directional power supply 534, switch 538 and radiationsource 540, electrically connected as shown. In some embodiments,radiation source 540 is a source of monochromatic radiation such as alaser.

In embodiments in which the physical factor is altered via a radiationsource, such as radiation source 540, and (1) the altered physicalfactor is the concentration of free charge carriers and (2) the Casimirforce-generating boundaries 522 and 520 are doped with an impurity tosupplement free charge carrier generation, then the radiation source isadvantageously tuned to the ionization level of the impurity. Radiationsource 540 is powered by a controlled power supply (not shown).

When switch 538 is closed, controlled bi-directional power supply 534 isoperable to supply charge to and receive charge from, as appropriate, afirst capacitive structure defined by side 524 a of plate 524 and side522 b of plate 522. Further, controlled bi-directional power supply 534is operable to supply charge to and receive charge from, as appropriate,a second capacitive structure defined by side 520 b of plate 520 andside 518 a of plate 518.

The illustrative arrangement of four plates 518, 520, 522 and 524depicted in FIG. 5 results in an equal distribution of charge on facingsides 524 a and 522 b of respective plates 524 and 522, and on facingsides 520 b and 518 a of respective plates 520 and 518. These sides,which must be conductive, receive substantially all the charge withsubstantially no charge being received by facing sides 522 a and 520 aof respective plates 522 and 520. This is depicted in FIG. 5 by thepresence of “+” and “−” on the appropriate sides of plates 518, 520, 522and 524. Plates 524 and 518 are advantageously maintained at the samepotential, and plates 522 and 520 are advantageously maintained at thesame potential. Given the illustrative arrangement, electrostatic forcesbetween plates 522 and 520 are kept quite low and can, therefore, beneglected.

Plates 522 and 520 comprise a material that is selected, for example,based on the physical factor that is going to be altered in accordancewith method 300. Suitable materials for an embodiment wherein theconcentration of free charge carriers is altered have already beendescribed. It is within the capabilities of those skilled in the art,using available reference materials and published articles, to suitablyselect materials as a function of physical factor being altered. In mostcases, simply experimentation is advantageously performed to confirmmaterials selection and to identify, as desired, a preferred material.

Since, in the illustrated embodiment, surfaces and 522 b and 520 b areconductive, and since, in some embodiments, plates 522 and 520 are notconductive, conductivity must be imparted to surfaces 522 b and 520 b.Conductivity may be imparted, for example, by coating those surfaceswith a conductive material (e.g., aluminum, etc.). Plates 524 and 518comprise a conductive material, or, in some embodiments, conductivity isimparted by depositing a conductive layer on the plates or appropriatelydoping the plates.

The “stack” of spaced plates 518, 520, 522 and 524 comprising energyextraction device 500 of FIG. 6 is formed using techniques that are nowquite familiar to those skilled in the art. In some embodiments, usingsuch conventional techniques, hundreds, thousands or even millions ofdiscrete apparatuses 500 are formed on a single substrate to provide asuitable amount of energy output as required for a given application.

In one embodiment, the stack of spaced plates is formed using surfacemicromachining technologies. Typical of such technology is SUMMiT VTechnology offered by Sandia National Laboratories(www.mdl.sandia.gov/micromachine/summit5.html). SUMMiT V is a five-levelpolycrystalline silicon surface micromachining process (one ground planeand four mechanical or releasable layers). Like most MEMS (micro electromechanical systems) fabrication technology, the SUMMiT V processinvolves alternately depositing a film, photolithographically patterningthe film, and then chemical etching.

Successive mechanical layers (i.e., the polysilicon layers) areseparated by, for example, silicon oxide layers. At the end of thefabrication process, the silicon dioxide is chemically removed, thereby“releasing” the polycrystalline silicon layers such that are movable, asdesired. The nominal spacing and thickness of layers is as follows. Thefirst layer, identified as “Poly 0,” is the ground plane layer ofpolysilicon having a nominal thickness of 0.3 microns. The next layer,“Poly 1,” has a thickness of 1 micron. The nominal separation distancebetween Poly 1 and Poly 0 is 2 microns. The next layer, “Poly 2,” has anominal thickness of 1.5 microns and has a nominal separation distanceof 0.5 microns from Poly 1. “Poly 3,” which is the next layer, has anominal thickness of 2.25 microns and a nominal separation distance of 2microns from Poly 2. Finally, “Poly 4” has a nominal thickness of 2.25microns and a nominal separation distance of 2 microns from Poly 3.

By way of example, in one embodiment of the fabrication of energyextraction apparatus 500 of FIG. 6 via the SUMMit V process, the Poly 3layer will be used to fabricate plate 524, the Poly 2 layer will be usedfor plate 522, the Poly 1 layer will be used for plate 520 and the poly0 layer will be used to fabricate plate 518. Since only three“mechanical” layers are required for the apparatus of FIG. 6, the Poly 4layer is not used. To immobilize plates 524 and 520, layer thickness canbe increased or, alternatively, braced, as appropriate.

Many other MEMS foundries are available for the fabrication of a stackedstructure such as apparatus 500. Those skilled in the art will know ofsuch foundries and be able to suitably select one by matching theircapabilities to the fabrication requirements of the device.

Radiation source 540 is advantageously formed separately from the stackof plates 518, 520, 522 and 524 according to well-known methods as isappropriate for the particular physical configuration of the radiationsource (e.g., laser, etc.). Electrical elements (e.g., switch 538, thewire traces, etc.) can be fabricated during stack formation as part of asurface micromachining process, or fashioned separately therefrom bystandard processing techniques. The various elements are thenappropriately packaged to form the complete energy extraction device500.

Before carrying out method step 302, switch 538 is closed and apotential difference V_(b) is applied to the plates while plate 522 isat a distance s_(D) from the plate 520. For pedagogical purposes, thisstate, which corresponds to point D in FIG. 2, is considered to be astate of mechanical equilibrium for the system.

FIG. 6 depicts transducer 500 at the completion of method step 302(i.e., at the completion of state change 202), which corresponds topoint A in FIG. 2. Recalling the earlier description, step 302 requiresaltering a physical factor Y_(l). In the illustrative embodiments, thisstep is performed by activating radiation source 540. Radiation source540 is advantageously tuned to the ionization level of impurities inplates 520 and 522. As a consequence, illuminating the facing sides 520a and 522 a of respective plates 520 and 522 causes an increase in theconcentration of free charge carriers in plates 520 and 522, and, hence,an increase in the Casimir force.

The illumination is advantageously slowly increased so that the increasein the Casimir force occurs as a series of very small changes. Accordingto engine cycle 200, plate 522 is substantially stationary as theCasimir force is increased in step 302. But as the Casimir forceincreases, there will be a tendency for plates 520 and 522 to be drawncloser together. To counteract this tendency, the electrostatic forcebetween plates 524 and 522 is increased by small increases in potentialV_(b). Thus, there is a flow of charge from power supply 534 towardtransducer 500, as indicated by the flow of current toward the positiveelectrode of the power supply 534. At the completion of step 302,radiation source 540 remains on but the intensity of illumination is nowheld constant.

FIG. 7 depicts transducer 500 at the completion of method step 304(i.e., the end of state change 204), which corresponds to point B inFIG. 2. As depicted in FIG. 7, plate 522 has moved closer to plate 520.This decrease in distance between plates 522 and plate 520 increases theCasimir force. To move plate 522 closer to plate 520, the voltagedelivered by power supply 534 is slightly decreased. But, to maintainplate 522 in quasi-static equilibrium, charge continues to flow asdistance s between plates 522 and 520 decreases until it reaches spacings_(B).

FIG. 8 depicts transducer 500 at the completion of method step 306(i.e., the end of state change 206), which corresponds to point C inFIG. 2. As will be recalled, in step 306, distance s between the plates522 and 520 is held substantially constant while the altered property isadvantageously returned to its initial condition. In the illustratedembodiment, step 306 is effected by decreasing illumination fromradiation source 540 so that the free carrier concentration, and hencethe Casimir force, decrease.

Since the Casimir force decreases as a result of step 306, but thedistance between the plates is held substantially constant, excesscharge must be drained from plates 524 and 522. The excess charge isdrained since, if it were not, plate 522 would be drawn toward plate 524(because the mutual electrostatic attraction between plates 524 and 522is now greater than the mutual attraction between plates 522 and 520 dueto the Casimir force). As illustrated in FIG. 8, current flow reverses,and energy is returned to bi-directional power supply 534.

FIG. 9 depicts transducer 500 at the completion of method step 308(i.e., at the end of state change 208), which corresponds to point D inthe cycle. In the present example, at point D, transducer 500 hascompleted a cycle.

As illustrated in FIG. 9, in step 308, plate 522 is moved away fromplate 520, advantageously returning to its original position. This isaccomplished by slightly increasing the voltage delivered by powersupply 534. As the distance between plates 522 and 520 is increased, theCasimir force decreases. Additional charge is drawn off plates 524 and522 to maintain quasi-static equilibrium. As in the previous step,charge is returned to power supply 534.

In view of the foregoing description, it will be appreciated thatillustrative cycle 200 can be described in terms of the cycling of twoindependent control variables, both of which affect the Casimir force.Thus, in a further illustrative embodiment of a method 600 in accordancewith the present teachings (see FIG. 10), a first control variable thataffects the Casimir force is cycled as per operation 602 and, inoperation 604, a second control variable that affects the Casimir forceis cycled. Such cycling effects the state changes (i.e., state changes202, 204, 206 and 208 defining engine cycle 200.

In the illustrative embodiments depicted herein, the first controlvariable alters a physical factor that affects the Casimir force, whilethe second control variable controls movements of the Casimirforce-generating boundaries.

By way of example, in an embodiment in which the physical factor is theconcentration of free charge carriers, the first control variable is, inthree different illustrative embodiments: (1) an amount of illumination;(2) an amount of thermal radiation; and (3) an amount of injectedcharge.

In the illustrative embodiments, voltage is used as the second controlvariable. In particular, voltage is used to change the distance betweenthe boundaries (e.g., state changes 204 and 208), or, alternatively, isused to prevent the boundaries from moving, when the first controlvariable is used to alter a physical parameter (e.g., state changes 202and 206).

FIG. 11 a depicts, figuratively, the cycling of the first and secondcontrol variables to effect desired state changes in engine cycle 200.The first control variable CV1 is cycled between a first value and asecond value, and the second control variable CV2 is cycled between athird value and a fourth value. Generally, the cycle of each controlvariable is described by some function F_(N)(T):CV 1=F ₁(T);andCV 2=F ₂(T).  [10]

The cycling of the two control variables is not necessarily expected todefine the circular shape depicted in FIG. 11 a or any of the shapesshown in FIGS. 11 b-10 e. Such plots are illustrative and are providedsimply as indication of some of the many possible ways in which firstcontrol variable CV1 and a second control variable CV2 may cycle toaccomplish the desired state changes.

In FIGS. 11 a-11 e, the first and second control variables are cyclingwith the same repetition rate (i.e., at the same frequency). In otherembodiments, the control variables cycle with different repetitionrates. The plots describing the cycling of the control variables inembodiments in which the repetition rates differ will be relativelycomplex functions.

In the illustrative embodiments, energy transformation system 532 isphysically configured to store energy accessed via the Casimirforce-generating plates, after transformation, as electrical energy inbi-directional power supply 534. In this configuration, energyextraction apparatus 500 is practicing operation 310A of method 300. Inanother embodiment (not shown), the same method step is practiced, butapparatus 500 includes separate power source and power storage (i.e.,for receiving transformed energy) facilities.

In another embodiment of method 300, operation 310B is practiced whereinextracted energy is delivered to a consumer of electrical energy for usethereby. In some embodiments, the energy is delivered from storage, suchthat, with minor modification (i.e., appropriate electrical connectionto the electrical consumer), the physical configuration of the energytransformation system 532 depicted in FIGS. 6-9 may suitable be used.

In yet an additional embodiment of operation 310B, energy is deliveredto a consumer as it becomes available from the method steps, such thatenergy transformation system 532 must be suitably modified by changesthat are within the capabilities of those skilled in the art. Thisembodiment is depicted in the simplified schematic of FIG. 11 whereinenergy extraction device 500 is electrically connected to electricaldevice 650. Energy accessed via Casimir force-generating boundaries thatis transformed to electrical energy is then used to power device 650.

In accordance with operation 310C of yet a further embodiment ofillustrative method 300, energy accessed via Casimir force-generatingboundaries is used to mechanically actuate a device. In one embodiment,this is accomplished by operatively linking the movable Casimirforce-generating boundary to the device so that the device is actuatedby movement of the movable boundary. Such an embodiment will againrequire modifications to energy transformation system 532 that arewithin the capabilities of those skilled in the art.

For example, as depicted in the simplified schematic of FIG. 12, energyextraction device 500 is operatively engaged to micro-mechanical device754 by linkage 752. Micro-mechanical device 754 functions as an opticalswitch wherein shutter 758 is moved into or out of the path of anoptical signal (not shown) traveling through core 766 of fiber 760.Shutter 758 moves responsive to movements of plate 522 along direction756. Movements of plate 522 responsive to the present method aretransmitted to shutter 758 via linkage 752.

When shutter 758 is in the path of an optical signal (i.e., when theshutter intersects core 766), further propagation of the optical signalis halted. When shutter 758 is out of the path of the optical signal,the signal passes unimpeded.

It is to be understood that the above-described embodiments are merelyillustrative of the invention and that many variations may be devised bythose skilled in the art without departing from the scope of theinvention and from the principles disclosed herein. It is thereforeintended that such variations be included within the scope of thefollowing claims and their equivalents.

1. An apparatus comprising: A first Casimir force-generating boundaryand a second Casimir force-generating boundary that are spaced apart bya distance from one another, wherein said distance is changeable; anenergy transformation system that operatively engages at least one ofsaid first Casimir force-generating boundary and said second Casimirforce-generating boundary, wherein said energy transformation systemcomprises: a first device that is operative to alter a physical factorof at least one of said first Casimir force-generating boundary and saidsecond Casimir force-generating boundary; and a second device that isoperative to change said distance, or prevent said distance fromchanging, while said first device alters said physical factor.
 2. Theapparatus of claim 1 wherein said first device comprises an illuminationsource that is operative to illuminate said at least one of said firstCasimir force-generating boundary and said second Casimirforce-generating boundary.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein saidsecond device is a power supply.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein: asecond side of said first Casimir force-generating boundary isconductive; a second side of said second Casimir force-generatingboundary is conductive; and said power supply is electrically connectedto: said second side of said first Casimir force-generating boundary;and said second side of said second Casimir force-generating boundary.5. The apparatus of claim 4 further comprising: a first conductive platedisposed in spaced relation and proximal to said second side of saidfirst Casimir force-generating boundary; and a second conductive platedisposed in spaced relation and proximal to said second side of saidsecond Casimir force-generating boundary.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5wherein said power supply is electrically connected to said firstconductive plate and said second conductive plate.
 7. The apparatus ofclaim 6 wherein: said second side of said first Casimir force-generatingboundary and said second side of said second Casimir force-generatingboundary are both at a first voltage; and said first conductive plateand said second conductive plate are both at a second voltage.
 8. Theapparatus of claim 1 wherein at least one of said first Casimirforce-generating boundary and said second Casimir force-generatingboundary comprises a material selected from the group consisting ofsemiconductors and compound semiconductors.
 9. The apparatus of claim 8wherein said material is doped with an impurity to increase, relative tosaid material without said impurity, a concentration of free chargecarriers on exposure to radiation.
 10. An apparatus comprising: a firstCasimir force-generating boundary and a second Casimir force-generatingboundary that are spaced by a distance from one another, wherein saiddistance is changeable; a first capacitive structure comprising a firstconductive plate spaced from said first Casimir force-generatingboundary; a second capacitive structure comprising a second conductiveplate spaced from said second Casimir force-generating boundary; and adevice that is operative to alter a physical factor of at least one ofsaid CFG boundaries.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10 wherein said deviceis a source of electromagnetic radiation.
 12. The apparatus of claim 10wherein said device is a source of thermal radiation.
 13. The apparatusof claim 10 further comprising a charge source that is electricallyconnected to said first Casimir force-generating boundary and saidsecond Casimir force-generating boundary, and to said first conductiveplate and said second conductive plate.
 14. The apparatus of claim 10wherein: a second side of said first Casimir force-generating boundarythat faces said first conductive plate is conductive; a first side ofsaid first Casimir force-generating boundary that faces a first side ofsaid second Casimir force-generating boundary is not conductive; asecond side of said second Casimir force-generating boundary that facessaid second conductive plate is conductive; and said first side of saidsecond Casimir force-generating boundary is not conductive.
 15. Theapparatus of claim 10 wherein at least one of said first Casimirforce-generating boundary and said second Casimir force-generatingboundary is operatively connected to a micro mechanical device.
 16. Theapparatus of claim 15 wherein the at least one Casimir force generatingboundary that is operatively connected to said micromechanical device isconnected thereto via a mechanical linkage.
 17. The apparatus of claim10 wherein said apparatus is electrically connected to a consumer ofelectricity.